The
Brain & Learning
William
C. Cathcart
Ball
State University
EDA
635: Strategies for Teaching Adults
September
20, 2013
Abstract
This unique structure
represents the gateway to all learning and understanding at all levels. This paper represents a brief and high level
summary of the research that has been done to understand the brain what implications
that research has on our efforts to create more effective learning strategies.
The
Brain & Learning
Introduction
The
study of any particular learning modality can be approached and segmented from
any number of perspectives. One could
for example seek to understand the impact of environmental factors on adult
learning. Another might take interest in
various learning theories and their competing perspectives with regard to human
cognition and retention. Since very
early time the question of how we as individuals take in, process and
understand information has been a study of much debate. Regardless of the focus, no true discussion
of learning and development can truly occur without first an examination the
structure and function of the brain.
The
volume of research aimed at unraveling the inner workings of the brain has
grown exponentially in recent years.
According to Reardon (Winter 98/99) in the past ten years, the
educational field has learned more about how the brain works than in the
previous ninety. The great leaps forward
in our understanding are largely related to rapidly improving and expanding
technologies and our continued pursuit of understanding.
This
unique structure represents the gateway to all learning and understanding at
all levels. This paper represents a
brief and high level summary of the research that has been done to understand
the brain what implications that research has on our efforts to create more
effective learning strategies.
We
use Mackeracher (2007) to define the
brain, a physical structures that work together to form the biological
basis for mental activity. Although
touched on in the discussion topics such as emotion and context are not
reviewed at length. There is also no
consideration of the impact of physical impairment of brain structures and
their impact on learning.
Brain Activity
The
brain is a part of the central nervous system which also includes the spinal
cord, and peripheral nerves. It is made
up of trillions of nerve cells called neurons.
Merriam (2008) says to describe neurons:
Imagine a child’s
sketch of a tree Roots, think base, slender trunk, and leafy branches. In the Brain, an electrochemical signal
starts at the “roots” (dendrites) flows to the “base” (cell body), up the
“trunk” (axon) and then to the “branches” (axon terminals) (p.50)
In the brain neurons
cluster together to form networks that trade information that is based on our
experiences both internal and external to ourselves. These neural networks are what constitute
learning (Fisherbank, 98/99). As we continue
to experience our world the brain is able to form more complex networks that
help us adapt and thrive. On the other
hand, networks that are associated with experiences that no longer occur or
that are infrequent wither and disappear.
Kolb, Gibb, and Robinson state:
The underlying
assumption of studies of brain and behavioral plasticity is that if behavior
changes, there must be some change in organization or properties of the neural circuitry
that produces the behavior. Conversely,
if neural networks are changed by experience, there must be some corresponding
change in the functions mediated by those networks. (pp.1)
The electrochemical
exchanges that occur between neurons take shape in the form of brain
waves. These brain waves occur with varying
levels of frequency and determine an individual’s level of conscious awareness
and focus of attention (Boucouvalas, 1993).
There are five levels of brain wave activity they include:
I.
Gamma
waves - very rapid occurring at 26-40 cycles per second
(cps) and are associated with states of agitation, distress, high anxiety, and
euphoria.
II.
Beta
waves – rapid occurring at 13- 26 cps are associated with
conscious awareness and alert attention to what is occurring in the outside
world. This level is associated with
learning and daily activities.
III.
Alpha
waves – slower 8-13 cps and are associated with the
individual’s being awake but relaxed and not engaged in deliberate thought;
attention is balanced between the outer and inner worlds and the individual
moves in and out of consciousness. This
state of diffuse attention is associated with creativity and the use of
imagery.
IV.
Theta
waves – slow 4-8 cps and are recorded when attention has
been withdrawn from the outside world and consciousness during reverie deep
meditation, or dreaming sleep.
V.
Delta
waves – very slow 3-4 cps and are recorded in deep sleep,
anesthesia, or coma. This is the state
of being unconscious. (Mackeracher, 2004 p.95)
Brain Construction
The triune brain theory
breaks the brain into three distinct levels each with its own function that
builds on that of the prior, (Caine & Caine, 1991; Hart. 1983; MacLean,
1990). The three levels are;
I.
The reticular activating system or
‘reptilian brain’ which governs voluntary and involuntary muscle movement, our
fight or flight response to fear, and our basic needs for food, shelter and
territory.
II.
The limbic system or ‘primitive
mammalian brain’ which supervises emotions, relationships, and learning.
III.
The neo-cortex or ‘modern mammalian
brain’ which is the realm of higher order thinking skills. (Reardon, 98/99)
While the neo-cortex
oversees control of these ‘higher functions’ as stated above each level is
dependent on the other in order to maintain normal system functions. Functionality and control shifts among the
three levels based on the conditions we are experiencing. Tests have shown that under increasing levels
of stress or stimulation the higher level functions of the neo cortex will shut
down and control will then be given to the limbic or reticular activating system
depending on the situation. This shutting
down or “down-shifting” effect caused by perceived overstimulation has
considerable implication for the classroom setting. Jensen (2005) states “nature’s biological
imperative is simple: no intelligence or ability will unfold until or unless
given the appropriate model environment.”
Early learning perspectives further divided the brain
into what is commonly known as its cerebral hemispheres. Much of the discussion here has been focused
on the fact that each half of the brain (left and right) provides a different
type of information processing system.
Historically, priority for analytical, temporal and sequential based
information is processed through the left side while Gestalt, nonlinear,
spatial tasks are better suited to the right side ((Mackeracher, 2004
p.99). This thinking oversimplifies the
functions of the two hemispheres and does not take into account the many areas
where overlap of function can and very often do occur. The two must work together in order to
process information that we gain through our experiences that will be used for
learning. If the two hemispheres are not
working in concert true learning does not occur.
Finally, it is tempting to think of the brain functions
as similar to those of a computer which processes information in a singular
fashion. The brain is a parallel
processor that controls many different functions at one time. Caine & Caine (1991) illustrate this difference
and offer several principles for brain based learning.
I.
The brain is a parallel processor doing
many things at once
II.
To learn, the brain needs to be
processing information. Delivering
information only in a linear, sequential fashion
III.
The brain allows for both conscious and
out-of-conscious learning.
IV.
Whatever we learn is embedded in the
context in which we learn it.
V.
All facilitating activities have an
effect on both cerebral hemispheres, however some have a stronger effect on one
hemisphere than the other.
These
principles emphasize the fact that the brain does not operate as just a more
advanced computer. We have multiple
processes that are occurring at any given time as we attempt to make sense of
our everyday lives. The information that
we take in during this activity is filtered through the left and right hemispheres
creating patterns of data that become more easily recognized leading to comprehension
and understanding. The context of the
information we process acts as a guide for our understanding and remains in a
fixed state to be used as a comparison for newly gained information.
Implications
Brain function and structural make
up must be considered as a basis for all learning and developmental
activities. In an educational setting
we must understand that the brain is organized in such a way that learning
opportunities are limited to the environment that we establish. This environment must provide a level of
stimulation that creates adequate levels of brain activity, stimulation that leads
to prolonged beta wave activity. If the appropriate
level of stimulation is not achieved brain systems are not likely to respond at
an optimal level. Too much stimulation
that can occur through perceived threat shuts down higher level brain functions
and eliminates opportunity for learning to occur. Too little stimulation does not achieve the
level of brain activity necessary to maintain attention and comprehension. While these ideas are not complex they must
be considered in the learning environment.
Also,
we must be careful to include activates that stimulate both the analytical and synesthetic
parts of the brain. Our brains operate
through a joint system that requires it to create patterns out of analytical
data in order to create meaning. While
it is clear that both hemispheres function in tandem to create learning and
understanding each person’s sensitivity to one side or the other is his or her
own. Facilitation must then be mindful
of the material that is being presented and provide opportunities for as much
cross operation as possible.
Finally
repetition is key for learning to occur.
The physical structure of the brain is made of neural networks that
become more or less complex based on our experiences with the world around us. In order to ensure ease of knowledge transfer
a facilitator must create opportunities for repetition to occur that leads to
pattern formation and recognition. At
this base level of development and information processing it is clear that the
more an activity is repeated the more the brain creates pathways to
understanding. At the same time, the
elastic nature of the brain leaves activities that are that go repeated or that
are not reinforced without support systems and thus potentially discarded.
Conclusion
This
paper seeks to introduce and review the physical structures of the brain and
how they relate to learning. The current
understanding of the brain and its functions in learning are better understood
today than ever before thanks to new technologies that allow for deeper more
effective identification of brain activity.
Theories reviewed focus specifically on brain activity and how to
optimize its functions in a given learning setting. Consideration is given to potential
implications in these theories in the classroom setting to address potential
barriers to learning.
Theme
|
Meaning
|
Application/Strategy
|
Physical basis of learning
|
The Brain as a physical structure is made up of many
structures that each have a unique place in learning
|
We must understand how the brain functions in order to
maximize learning
|
Plasticity
|
Neurons that make up the brain change based on repetition of
activity
|
The more an activity or concept is repeated or used
continuously the easier it is to retain
|
Brain wave levels matter
|
Brain waves are a function of various levels of activity and
must maintain a certain level in order to ensure learning
|
Appropriate levels of stimulation are necessary to achieve
desired learning. Stimulation can’t be
too extreme or too passive must be in synch
|
Brain Systems are not individual
|
The Brain is built to function as a whole system. Triune Brain
includes Reticular Activating, Limbic and Neo-Cortex. Also considered are Right and Left
hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
|
Systems cannot function individually facilitation of learning
must include the entire brain and all its functions.
|
The Brain is not a computer
|
The Brain is a dual processing system with multiple functions
occurring at once
|
We must follow specific guidelines in order to insure that the
brain is operating at optimal levels and that the desired learning can occur
|
References
Boucouvalas, M. (1993). Consciousness and learning:
New and renewed approaches.
In S.B. Merriam (Ed.). An update on adult learning theory. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 57 (pp. 57-68). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cain, R.N.,
& Caine, G. (1991). Making
connections: Teaching and the human brain.
Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Fisherbank, Sara J (Winter 98/99). Learning and the Brain. Adult Learning,
vol. 10 (Issue 2), p 18
Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind
(2nd Rev. ed.), Motivation and rewards (pp. 62-70).
Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Mackeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult
learning. (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Merriam, Sharan B. (2008) Third Update on Adult
Learning Theory. Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Reardon, Mark (Winter 98/99). The Brain. Adult
Learning, vol. 10 (Issue 2), p 10
